Definition

Resilience is the ability to adapt and respond to unexpected problems beyond the scope of standard training for emergencies. This includes handling "Black Swan" events: rare and unlikely occurrences with the potential for severe consequences.

Use of the term in this context derives from one of its original meanings, defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary as "an ability to recover from or adjust easily to adversity or change."

Description

Myriad hazards can create catastrophic circumstances for which there is no checklist or Quick Reference Handbook (QRH) procedure. They include terrorist attacks, cyber attacks, freak weather events, Air Traffic Control (ATC) system failures, high-energy aircraft fires, and cascading aircraft component failures. 

A 2021 article in Flight Safety Foundation's AeroSafety World journal differentiated between resilience and robustness. The piece noted that robustness means how professionals meet challenges for which they have training, resources, and skills. However, the article quoted an assistant professor at the Center for Aviation Studies at The Ohio State University, as saying, "Resilience is more about how we go beyond that . . . when we are faced with unexpected events for which we do not have the likes of specific checklists."

Stakeholders across the aviation industry have begun recognizing the need to develop resilience in the face of unpredictable threats. An Airbus article by Human Factors expert Florence Burrato and Captain Robert Graeff pointed to the startle factor as a barrier to resilience. The startle factor involves the involuntary neurological and physiological response to a sudden-onset unexpected event. Pilots can lose critical seconds as they try to understand what is happening and regain situational awareness.

Resilience is equally important to air traffic controllers. A 2025 research paper looked at the role of resilience in enhancing performance of controllers in high-stress situations. The study by Seda Ceken of the Institute for Aviation Psychology Research at Istanbul University identified cognitive flexibility as a key to resilience. "Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability of individuals to cope with new and unexpected situations," the report said. "Cognitive flexibility allows pilots or [controllers] to quickly produce alternative solutions to prevent possible dangers."

 The paper, published in the International Journal of Aviation, Astronautics, and Aerospace, said cognitive flexibility factors into psychological resilience. "Psychological resilience in the aviation sector refers to the ability of individuals to maintain their functionality even in difficult situations and to quickly return to the normalization process," the study said.

Developing Resilience

The Airbus article identified two key elements of resilience: competence and confidence. 

To develop competence, the article advocated a shift from task-based training to competency-based training. The older model of task-based training involved training and evaluating specific maneuvers such as:

• Engine failure on takeoff
• Engine failure on final approach
• Go-around with engine failure
• Low-visibility go-around
• Rejected takeoff

"This task-based training approach is by nature only adapted to predictable scenarios," the report said. By contrast, the report said the goal of the competency-based model "is not to train the flight crew to react to every specific situation, but to be prepared for an infinite number of situations by developing a finite number of competencies."

For flight crew training, Airbus uses nine competencies defined by the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA):

• Application of knowledge
• Application of procedures and compliance with regulations
• Communication
• Flight Path Management - Automation
• Flight Path Management - Manual Control
• Leadership and Teamwork
• Problem Solving and Decision Making
• Situational Awareness and Information Management
• Workload Management

"Observable behaviors are associated with each defined competency and are used for training and assessment purposes," the article said.

Boeing has developed a similar approach. The company's Competency-Based Training and Assessment (CBTA) program aims to prepare crews for the unexpected. Boeing's website says "Task-based training programs focus on specific tasks, such as maneuvers and checklists, often in isolation. However, real-world situations are rarely aligned with the specific tasks chosen for training. Variables such as adverse weather, equipment malfunctions, and even human factors introduce complexity that task-based training cannot fully anticipate."

A New Approach: Evidence-Based Training 

This new approach to building confidence and competence is sometimes referred to as evidence-based training (EBT). EBT includes a systematic debriefing after a flight or simulator session, examining what went right and what went wrong. "Under EBT, instead of focusing just on the result, the trainee is faced with the process of achieving that result," the AeroSafety World article said. "By understanding the process, the pilots will learn about their strengths, but also about their weaknesses."

The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) supports EBT, which evolved from a consensus that the industry needed a strategic review of airline pilot training. EBT develops crew performance without necessarily distinguishing between "nontechnical" and "technical" competencies. Under EBT, instructors focus on the root causes of substandard behaviors, rather than simply asking a crew to repeat a maneuver until they get it right.

An EBT implementation guide published by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) says, "EBT recognizes the need that all pilots should be challenged with unrehearsed events that continually build resilience and confidence throughout a pilot's career." The implementation guide says the objectives of resilience development are to:

• Strengthen situational awareness, to minimize surprise
• Understand the concepts of surprise and startle, as well as their differences
• Understand and train resilience strategies to recover from surprise and startle
• React in a controlled and structured manner to an unexpected event
• Maintain or restore the safety margin by applying appropriate competencies

Softer Skills: Mindfulness

The above-mentioned study by Seda Ceken at Istanbul University pointed to mindfulness as a "critical link between cognitive flexibility and psychological resilience." The report added, "It is thought that mindfulness training can increase [controllers'] attention levels and help them manage their emotional reactions, thereby reducing communication errors and increasing flight safety."

The Istanbul University study described mindfulness as the ability to "carefully monitor the present moment and make deliberate choices rather than automatic reactions, allowing for a more conscious decision-making process in the face of complex and stressful situations."

The report also noted a need for additional research on resilience. "Job stress, quality of life, personality traits and social support level are particularly worthy of further investigation, as they have been identified as important variables in the existing literature," the study said.

Other Components of Competence

A thorough knowledge of aircraft systems and limitations serves as a key component of pilot competence. For example, the speed and altitude limitations for engine air starts on a particular aircraft may not be required memory items. But if pilots have this information top of mind, they can save critical seconds in an engine flameout emergency if they don't have to continually refer back to a limitations chart. (See the first case study below.)

Even when a specific checklist exists for a given systems problem, rote adherence to that checklist might not be the best solution. For example, QRH procedures for smoke of unknown origin can involve a lengthy process of shutting down electrical busses and turning them back on to identify the source of an electrical fire. Such a process might be necessary on a long flight over water or rough terrain. But if a suitable airport is nearby, a quick emergency descent and landing could be a better option.

Simple familiarity with emergency equipment can also ease the stress level during a crisis. For instance, if smoke in the flight deck requires pilots to use quick-don oxygen masks, the experience can be disorienting. The noise of the oxygen regulators and the transfer of audio to an overhead speaker can be distracting. If a pilot's glasses get knocked out of position when the mask is donned, this raises the stress level even more and costs time. Pilots may use a quick-don mask only once a year during recurrent training. But if they practice donning masks on their own, perhaps during cruise flight when workload is low, they can minimize the fumbling and communication problems sometimes associated with using quick-don masks in an emergency.

Case Studies

On 24 June 1982, a Boeing 747 operated by British Airways entered a cloud of volcanic dust at FL370. All four engines failed, and the aircraft began descending. After repeated attempts, the flight crew restarted engine #4 at FL130, then restarted the other engines in succession. The crew faced a high-stress, high-workload situation aggravated by surging of engine #2, which they shut down. While handling the multiple engine restarts, the crew also navigated to the nearest suitable airport. The aircraft made a safe emergency landing in Jakarta, Indonesia.

On 28 April 1988, A Boeing 737-200 operated by Aloha Airlines suffered several structural failure of the fuselage and a resulting explosive depressurization at FL240. Approximately 5.5 metres (18 feet) of cabin skin and structure was lost, and one cabin crew member was killed. Despite a highly stressful situation marked by an extreme workload and loud noise with resulting communication difficulties, the flight crew managed a successful landing at Kahului Airport on the island of Maui, Hawaii.

On 7 April 1994, a jumpseating FedEx employee attempted to kill the flight crew of a McDonnell Douglas DC-10 on a flight from Memphis, Tennessee, to San Jose, California. The employee was a flight engineer who was due to be fired for lying on his resume about previous flying experience with the U.S. Navy. He reportedly planned to crash the aircraft. Just minutes after takeoff, he attacked the crew with hammers and fractured the first officer's skull. The crew used extreme maneuvers to try to keep the attacker off balance. Despite their serious injuries, they restrained him and made a safe overweight landing at Memphis International Airport. As a result of injuries, no member of the flight crew was ever granted a medical certificate to fly commercially again. The Air Line Pilots Association awarded Captain David Sanders, First Officer James Tucker, and Flight Engineer Andrew Peterson the Gold Medal Award for heroism.

On 15 January 2009, an Airbus A320 operated by US Airways suffered a dual engine failure after encountering a flock of geese on departure from New York's LaGuardia Airport. The crew executed a successful ditching in the Hudson River with no loss of life. The accident report cited the decision-making of the flight crew members and the performance of the cabin crew members during evacuation of the aircraft.

A Case Study in System Resilience

The terrorist hijackings on Sept. 11, 2001 presented an unexpected, even unimagined threat that tested the resilience of the entire aviation system. One might describe that day as the ultimate Black Swan event. The attacks highlighted strengths but also identified weaknesses against a new breed of terrorist.

Pilots, controllers, and aviation decision makers used whatever tools and resources were available to them to get aircraft on the ground as quickly as possible. According to the National Air Traffic Controllers Association (NATCA), controllers guided 700 aircraft to land in the first four minutes, 2,800 in the first hour, and more than 4,500 within the first three hours.

The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ordered the implementation of what was then called Security Control of Air Traffic and Navigation Aids (SCATANA), effectively shutting down the U.S. airspace system. The 9/11 attacks led to changes in the worldwide aviation system ranging from security screening to cockpit door design to new common strategies for hijacking response.

Further Reading

• "Defining Resilience," AeroSafety World, Mario Pierobon, February 23, 2021.
• "Training Pilots for Resilience," Safety First, Airbus publication, October 2021.
• "The Role of Cognitive Flexibility and Psychological Resilience in Enhancing Operational Performance Among Air Traffic Controllers; Seda Ceken; International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace, 2025.
• IATA Evidence-Based Training Implementation Guide